9. Monkeys

Over their evolutionary journey primates of all animals developed comparatively the most developed brain. However, they possess inherent and persistent inquisitiveness and anxiety about their environs that runs counter to their intelligence.  This trait is so acute that they tend to touch and feel whatever they come across. At times, this intuitive behaviour can be a fatal trap. In his writings R. L. Spittel describes how monkeys reach out to leopards that pretend to be lifeless, making them easy prey. Uncanny leopards make use of the irrational habit of monkeys to probe everything around, even their deadliest enemy.

Once I witnessed an incident which bears testimony to above. I was visiting the main office of Yala (Ruhuna) National Park and staying at the Palatupana circuit bungalow for a couple of days. One evening while I was sitting on the parapet wall in the front veranda it suddenly started to rain heavily.

There is a garage just in front of the bungalow and a Grey Langur was sitting on the bonnet of the jeep parked there with its limbs placed on the support bracket of the side mirror. A while later, a young cow loitering around also got into the garage to escape from the rain and stood near the jeep. This visitor within reaching distance immediately drew the attention of the monkey. The next moment it appeared that the monkey which was watching the cow anxiously wanted to touch her face.

Though the monkey extended its arm to touch the cow it had no courage to actually touch her and pulled the arm back. This repeated several times with the monkey looking at the cow for any reaction. But the cow did not pay any attention and she was looking out at the rain. The monkey finally took courage to touch the cow’s face.

Though the cow did not care much at the beginning she did not like the continuing strange sensation and butted its head while looking piercingly at the monkey. She must have thought that further tolerance of the monkey’s unexpected love might lead to complications. The monkey was expecting a reaction from the cow any moment and as soon as this happened it leapt on to the top of the jeep and bolted. Though this was such a casual incident it clearly depicted the inquisitive anxiety inherent in monkeys.

As well as the individual behaviour patterns the social behaviour of monkeys too is quite interesting. Comprehensive research studies on the ecology of most of the primate species in Sri Lanka, namely the Grey Langur, Purple faced Leaf Monkey and Toque Macaque, have been carried out at Horton Plains and at Polonnaruwa. The study at Polonnaruwa has been on-going for the last thirty years.

A troop of monkeys spends the night on top of a tall tree hugging each other to keep warm and start the day early. Firstly, the dominant male of the troop calls out aloud. Purpose of this call is to let the other troops know its location and the direction. Position of the other troops will be determined according to the reply calls come from them. Other troops are not allowed to enter the territory of a troop dominated by a grown adult male.

A dominant male along with a few females and sub-adults and a few juveniles form a mixed troop. Conceiving the females in the troop is the sole right of the dominant male, as no other sexually matured male is allowed to remain in the troop. The dominant male makes sure that the growing male sub-adults beyond a certain age are expelled from the group. This prevents a possible threat to the leadership of the troop as well as inbreeding amongst closely related animals that would result in genetically weak progeny.

Young males thus expelled form their own small male only troops and move about together. The sole objective of the members of these male troops is to grow strong and try and oust a dominant male from a mixed troop. Only by such domination can a male monkey ensure that its genes are propelled forward.

The dominant male of a troop has to wage a constant struggle with the contenders to its role. Sometimes, such struggles taking place on the periphery of the territory end up with the defeat and retreat of the dominant male. It is very rarely that anyone gets severely wounded or indeed perished in these fights. Mostly, only threatening behaviour such as groaning and grinning is used to chase away the looser. It has been estimated that the average reigning period of a dominant male is only twenty one months.

A new leader assumes duty no sooner the former is banished. But copulation is allowed only with the females who are not bearing infants. The females who suckle the infants fathered by the previous leader and who do not allow mating would be subjected to the wrath of the new leader. His next objective would be to persuade the females to agree to mate by killing off the infants.

Once I met a young university student from south India named Agoramurthy who had studied the ecology of Grey Langer. He referred to ‘infanticide’ by troop leaders and explained that in a research study in South India it was observed that a female monkey carried the dry carcass of her infant killed by the troop leader for weeks.

A mother loves her infant much and keeps constant vigil over it. On sensing the slightest threat she immediately hugs it for protection. Infants create the bond and affection among the members of a troop. When the mother is foraging she hands over the infant to another female for care. The slightest moan from it draws the attention of the mother. In the case of a threat from a new leader all the females in the troop will come to the protection of the infant. But this particular trait has not been observed among the Toque Macaque or ‘Rilawa’.

As an infant becomes a sub-adult the dependency on the mother too is gradually reduced. As the role of a female is to have the maximum number of progeny within the short fertile period it prevents a sub-adult suckling beyond a point and tends to become pregnant again. The sub adults let go such become restless and start quarrelling with each other disturbing the harmony within the troop. If the sub-adult is a male he will have to leave the troop at this point.

The closest relation of the monkey is Loris or ‘Unahapuluwa’. An exceptionally large pair of eyes, the absence of a tail and the slender limbs will distinguish Loris from other species of primates. This innocent looking shy and nocturnal creature spends the day time hiding among the foliage and can rarely be seen in the forest. Mostly, only the sharp squeaky call can be heard at night.  Moving slowly among the foliage Loris feeds on fruit and insects. Birds, lizards, geckos, skinks, and tree frogs too may become prey to it. It slides in utter silence slowly and snatches the prey in a flash, with both hands. Then the prey is killed biting the head with its sharp teeth and eaten leaving no part.

‘Banda’ was a tamed Macaque loved by everybody and kept tethered to a pipe fixed between two cashew trees behind my quarters. Its routine was eating when hungry what was offered by someone and left in a coconut shell and plainly watching around. Its world was lonely and so constrained to within the length of the chain fixed to a belt around its waist. There was nothing Banda could do other than listening to something said by anyone passing by out of sympathy for its loneliness. Banda’s closest friend was Gunasekara, the Driver, who allowed it to touch and feel him freely. Once in a way, he got his head too checked by Banda. Though Banda engaged in the task so keenly and carefully there was nothing much to do as his head was bald in the centre.

Monotony of Banda’s life slightly changes when visitors to the park surround him. He reacts to their fondling and accepts any food offered to him happily. Then he retreats to the familiar fork of the tree. Habit of the Macaques is to fill the pouches of their cheeks with food as fast as they can get hold of and retreat to a shelter where it can be eaten leisurely.

Women in short frocks aroused the interests of Banda who would quickly get close to their feet. Understanding this inquisitiveness women with such a dress sense were cautioned against getting too near it.

The aggressiveness hidden within innocent Banda is aroused when he escapes from the chain. He raids the kitchens in the living quarters at Okanda and topples the containers containing everything such as sugar, tea, milk powder and flour, strewing the contents all over. After such a raid Banda looks like a dancer with heavy make-up.  Whole Okanda becomes a battlefield as everybody runs after Banda to get hold of him. Sometimes, it takes a couple of days to catch him and tether him back to the tree. No sooner he is confined to the tree Banda becomes calm and quiet again.   

The end of Banda’s story was a tragedy. Escaping the clutches of the chain once he bit and severely wounded the small child in a group of visitors staying in Okanda circuit bungalow. All efforts to catch Banda failed and it had to be shot.

Notwithstanding how long a wild animal lives in association with man the tameness developed is rather superficial. It only covers the inherited brutish or wild characteristics temporarily. Living while suppressing the inherited characteristics imposes a severe stress on wild animals and they would quickly jump at shedding their assumed personality no sooner they get the first opportunity.

Taming of wild animals and putting them under the subjugation of man is a great injustice done to them.

“The monkey looked beyond what was real
And imagined possibilities he could not imagine
He thought himself omnipotent
Because, for a moment, he Was
The fire burning inside him
Propelled his curiosity to unhealthy proportions
Then he stopped and thought
Or didn't think
Suddenly he came to his senses
And his senses came to him
For he was a Monkey
Unchanged by evolution or legacy
A product of his own environment”

                                              - Winchester Weazill

8. Birds

Being a wildlife reserve famous through the ages for birds, the word ‘Kumana’ instantly paints in one’s mind a picture of a bird paradise. As described earlier ‘Kumana Villu’ is a low lying swamp near the estuary of the Kumbukkan Oya river. The ring of mangrove strands in the middle of the villu creates a unique and safe environment for the nesting of aquatic birds.  

Thousands of birds belonging to a variety of species build their nests in the villu and feed the nestlings during the months of June and July. Formation of separate colonies belonging to each species is a special facet observed here.

As most visitors to Kumana were avid birders and bird lovers, officers stationed in Yala East were obliged to learn about birds that led to most of them having the ability to identify them at sight.

Among the prominent species of birds to nest in the villu include, Painted Stork, Spot Billed Pelican, Cormorant and Darter. Painted Stork is the most colourful of them while the pelican is pale in colour. The pelican has the skin forming a ‘sack’ under the bill which helps the bird to regulate body heat and gives it a special look. Cormorant and darter are master divers and ascend to the surface to swallow their prey that is caught underwater. White Egrets are amongst the most common species of birds in the villu. Spoonbill and Black Headed Ibis both have uniquely formed bills. Purple Heron and Grey Heron are some of the other common species of birds nesting there.

During the nesting season adult birds bring sticks one by one from the nearby forest to pack together and build their nests. The hatchlings of most species do not resemble their parents. Those of the cormorant that is glossy dark in colour in adulthood, have a pure white plumage. Hatchlings take sometime to develop the colourful plumage and resembles their adults.

Adults have to provide a continuous supply of food to the greedy hatchlings. They return to the nests after repeated journeys to the nearby tanks and lagoons and regurgitate the food to feed the quarrelling hatchlings. Quarrelling makes the hatchlings develop the strength to overpower the weaker siblings and get the lion share of the feed. As a result, weak members may die of starvation.

Sometimes the parent birds have to travel long distances to reach feeding grounds. Birds such as Painted Stork, Open-billed Stork and Pelican employ an interesting strategy to travel long distances with the least amount of energy.  As the sun rays warm the ground in the morning, it in turn makes the lower layers of air warm and light. This warm and light air rises into the sky in the form of convection currents. The birds soar into the sky in a circular movement by spreading their wings and latching onto these currents. Once they reach adequate height that gives them a commanding view, they fly towards the feeding grounds.

Painted storks start feeding early morning in the shallow waters of a lagoon or a tank. The strategy adopted to catch the prey is driving the fish to come under the shade of its unfolded wing by stirring the mud with its legs. The fish, frogs and the crabs unsuspectingly take refuge such, only to be devoured by the bird.

White Egret and Herron wade in the shallow water and stand still patiently until prey comes within the reach of their bill. It is rarely that a fish escapes the darting sharp bill. If a fish caught is too big, it is brought ashore to be beaten to death before being swallowed holding the head down.

The Spoonbill wading in shallow water stirs the mud sideways with its spoon shaped flat bill to catch the prey.  They do this as a flock moving in a line forming a front for better results. The Open-billed Stork gets its name because of the gap developed between the two mandibles of the bill when closed, as it grows into adulthood. It feeds mostly on molluscs such as snails and oysters, opening them with its strong bill.

Cormorants and Darters show adaptations to aquatic life with their ability to dive deep in water. Fish caught underwater are tossed in the air and snapped at to swallow head down first. It will be rare for a fish to slide out and escape from the serrated edges of the mandibles. Once I observed a flock of about three thousand cormorants working together to catch prey in the Parakrama Samudra reservoir at Polonnaruwa. The flock looked like a huge wheel rolling in water. Birds at the rear end of the flock took off and flew to the front, to dive repeatedly and re-emerge from the rear - this keeps repeating while the virtual wheel formed by the flock keeps turning and moving forward. It was seen that other birds such as pelicans and terns too got into the flock and made good use of the opportunity.

Sometimes, birds belonging to different species and living at different levels of the forest canopy but sharing a common feeding habit can be seen forming a union and foraging for insects by moving around together. Insects escaping from birds foraging at the ground level would become prey to birds living in the upper layers of the forest. This symbiosis collectively benefits all bird communities of the forest by the maximum use of available resources.

Although the villu is a relatively safe haven for nesting sometimes predators such as monitors, serpents, eagles and kites would be smart enough to raid a nest and snatch an egg or a chick. The youngsters of Kumana too at times evade the wildlife officers stationed there and wade across the villu to steal eggs so that they could relish an omelette.

Apart from the villu, Kumana tank too is an ideal home for aquatic birds. Pheasant Tailed Jacana the call of which resembles that of a cat is a beautiful bird with a long tail. Its long toes enable it to be steady on the Nelum lotus leaves while walking or briskly whisking away its chicks by hiding them under the wings when surprised by a predator.  Purple Swamp Hen is another colourful bird found among the Nelum leaves. Its dark purple plumage and the bright red wattle help to quickly recognize it.

Migration of birds starts with the onset of the north-east monsoon winds in September or October. Migration of birds that normally inhabit the upper parts of northern hemisphere such as Siberia and Europe to the tropical countries close to the equator is caused by the scarcity of food and extremely cold weather experienced in the winter. This amazing journey taking place across countries and continents is sometimes a continuous flight of thousands of kilometres. This arduous feat needs lots of energy which they stock in the form of fat deposits in their bodies by consuming excess food preceding the start of the migration. Birds have a wonderful inherent ability to find their designated migratory track. It is believed that their sensory perceptions allow them to follow earth’s magnetic field and patterns of the stars.

In their final part of the journey these birds migrate across the Indian sub-continent and enter the island through northern and north western coasts. Whilst the forest birds distribute themselves inland, most of the aquatic birds move along the coastal belt, southwards. The chain of lagoons along the coast of Yala East is an ideal habitat for them. The shallow lagoons and adjacent mud flats are rich feeding grounds for these birds that feed on molluscs, crabs and other small aquatic creatures. During the migratory season a number of sandpiper and plover species can be seen moving about in the lagoons in large flocks.

Though these aquatic birds do not bear colourful plumages as the forest birds they nevertheless have a variety of interesting physical features. Especially the shape of the bill differs from each other to suit their respective feeding habits. Whilst some of the bird species have a short bill to feed on small creatures such as molluscs on the surface, some have a long thin bill to pull a crab out of its deep cavity. The Whimbrel and other curlews almost always found on the beach have such curved elongated bills.

The Flamingo is a large rare visitor to the lagoons in and around Yala East. This beautiful bird which is about five feet in height can be distinguished from far by its long neck and legs. The ultimate destination of the flamingo that arrives in flocks of hundreds is Bundala Lagoon, near Hambantota. Once I observed a flock of about five hundred taking a short break in Panakala lagoon near Panama, while on their way to Bundala. Flocks of thousands of flamingos wading in the Bundala lagoon is a common sight during the migratory season.

Evolutionary strategy has favoured different species of birds to develop the palate for different food types occurring in different habitats and thereby reduced the competition for food and space.

Many migratory tern and gull species can be observed hovering along the coast and the lagoons. They fly over the water gazing at the surface and dash into the water as soon as a fish appears. There is another group of birds confined to grasslands around lagoons and other water bodies. They feed on grasshoppers, annelids and other small creatures and have varied and interesting patterns of behaviour.

Red-wattled Lapwing which sings by repeating the question “did he do it?” is a common bird in open grasslands. Yellow-wattled Lapwing which differs only by the colour of the wattle is not as a common bird. Lapwings do not bother to build elaborate nests and lay eggs on a dry cow dung pat on the ground. The colour pattern of the egg shell is camouflaged such that it cannot be distinguished even at very close range.  During the breeding season when the eggs or the chicks are there in the nest, they do not hesitate to challenge any predator coming close. On such occasions their high pitched call is raised while flying in rapid wavering patterns into the sky and this does not cease until the danger is no more.

‘Broken wing’ posture is another strategy used by lapwings to get rid of predators. It draws the attention of the predator away from the nest by running away pretending that one of its wings is broken. There are a number of other species of birds which adopt the broken wing posture.

The small common bird species on the grasslands are larks and pipits. Their plumages which are not that colourful help them to escape the attention of predators in their open habitat. These small birds call constantly and make the surroundings come alive. The Bush Lark which parachutes down is quite a versatile species.

White-throated Kingfisher

Forest birds have more colourful and attractive plumages. They confine themselves to different forest canopies at different heights and have food preferences different to each other. Dark plumages help them to camouflage in the backdrop of the dark colours of the forest and escape the attention of predators.

Indian Pitta is undoubtedly a beautiful bird and spends most of its time turning debris on the ground. It is a common bird that migrates from India and evenly spreads out all over the island. One of the rare migrants we observed almost every year near the staff quarters at Okanda was the Orange-headed Ground Thrush. This beautiful bird with a reddish-yellow head and under parts can be seen foraging on the ground and in the forest undergrowth.  

Woodpeckers hang on tree trunks and remove the bark with its chisel like bill to feed on small creatures found underneath the bark. Among them the Rufous Woodpecker has a peculiar behaviour pattern. It lays its eggs in a cavity built in an ant nest about the size of a football. The symbiosis existing between a bird and an ant is interesting.

Of the birds living in the upper canopy of the forest the Hornbill has an unusual habit that deserves some sympathy. In preparation for laying eggs the female bird enters a tree hollow and leaving only a small orifice to put the bill out for feeding, closes its opening with a cement made out of its own droppings. Thereafter, the eggs are laid and incubated with the female being a virtual prisoner depended on the food fed by the male bird through the opening. During the incubation period the female sheds all its feathers and develops a new plumage. After the eggs are hatched it comes out breaking the cement and starts feeding the chicks with the help of the male. Of the two species of hornbill found in Sri Lanka, the Malabar Pied Hornbill looks rather distinctive with its large protrusion on the bill.  

Every evening, a large flock of Malabar Pied Hornbills would come to Okanda lagoon to roost in the mangrove forest therein. During my stay at Okanda I was not awakened by the usual musical calls of the myriad of birds but it was the sharp call of the hornbills which came to the huge Palu tree near my living quarters that put me out of my dreams. Each morning they annoyed me with their irritating screech which resembles the cry raised by someone being choked.

While some of the bird species distribute over all types of habitats in the forest, certain species confine themselves only to specific habitats. The Red-faced Malkoha is one such rare species that confines itself to riverine forests. So far, I have seen this beautiful bird only twice, once at Gal amuna along the Kumbukkan Oya and once at Karanda Oya on the way back from Bakmitiyawa. Sighting of this shy bird endemic to Sri Lanka is a reward for a keen bird watcher.

There are number of nocturnal birds that can be seen while patrolling the park at night. The Nightjar, one of the commonest among them is found perched on the dusty sand layer of the road. Suddenly, this small bird with a large mouth jumps into the sky and snatches an insect flying close to it and returns to its original spot.

Being nocturnal carnivores owls have peculiar patterns of behaviour. Any creature from a small lizard to a hare would be an easy prey for the sturdy owl. Its hunting ability is supported by large eyes which can see clearly even in the dark, sharp hearing, a well developed bunch of claws and a strong pair of large wings. An interesting feeding habit of the owl is that any food that is indigestible such as bones, hair, and feathers, are compressed and regurgitated as compact pellets. Bee Eaters too have the habit of ejecting the undigested parts of the food back through the mouth.

Eagles and the kites are the masters of the sky. Eagles are capable of gliding over their territory spreading their strong and wide wings and then dashing and snatching a small mammal, a serpent or even a fish at sight, with its long sharp claws. A prey caught with the four claws resembling steel hooks wouldn’t have the least chance of escaping. Eagle species have food habits different to each other.

The Black Eagle which is a fairly rare bird mostly raids the nests of other birds to feed on their eggs and chicks. It prefers to live in the vicinity of mountains and escarpments and when found in the low country it is frequently observed along foothills. The crest on the head helps to distinguish the Changeable Hawk Eagle from other species of eagles. While it spends most of its time on the branch of a tree watching around for prey, it can at times be seen at the edge of a puddle having a bath. The Hawk Eagle has the skill and the strength to kill a prey even bigger than it. Once at Kumana I came across a Malabar Pied Hornbill killed by a Hawk Eagle.

It was at Lunugamvehera that I saw the real ferocity of the Hawk Eagle. That afternoon I was walking along a foot path across the catchment area of Lunugamvehera reservoir with Mr. Shirley Perera. With the water level of the reservoir receding small puddles were left here and there on the exposed grassland. Suddenly, we noticed a Hawk Eagle standing in a small puddle close to our trail. With water seemingly up to its knees the bird was turning its head and seemed disturbed. I went off the trail sneakily with the intention of getting closer without disturbing the bird. I wanted to take a photograph taking cover behind a large dead tree standing near the puddle. But, however careful I was the bird noticed me by the time I reached the spot. As I raised the camera it took off before I could snatch a photo. What caught our eye next was most unexpected.  A White Egret popped out of the water at the spot where the eagle was standing. Having been drowned forcefully by the eagle the egret was semi conscious and was wavering and struggling to get out of the water. We did not disturb the helpless bird and moved away. It appears that having caught a prey too big to subdue the eagle thought of drowning it.

The staple food of most common of eagles, the Serpent Eagle, as its name suggests are serpents.  During the breeding season it rises high up into the sky with the morning convections currants and performs acrobatics before mating. The White-bellied Sea Eagle whose under parts are snow white is always seen in the vicinity of the sea or a large reservoir. Their large, wide and strong wings help them to fly close to the surface of the water and snatch a swimming fish. They also have the habit of snatching a prey possessed by other eagles.

There are countless aspects of the forest which bring pleasure to one’s mind.   Watching birds moving about in the trees and branches is foremost among them. It does not take undue time or effort. It does not need one to be too selective about the place. Just developing the habit of looking at a flying or playing bird twice will be the beginning of a bird watcher. Birds with their innumerable displays are capable of filling our life with great joy.

"Who's there? Who's there? Why have you come?"

The shamas sang in their green abode

They had for generations known,

While the hunter trod the jungle road.

"What bird is it that sings so sweet?"

The hunter asked his native guide.

"The meecha, Sir; it's black and white:

The Kala meecha," he replied.

They walked along while the singers piped,

And mellow the changeful notes they blew.

"Show me the bird," the hunter said­-

But ever the bird evading flew.

"Who's there? Who's there? Whom do you seek " Came from the bough the fay retort:

From this bough now, from that anon-­

A glimpse at last - a gun's report!

The shama's dead on the mossy grass,

They lift it, and speak of the sweet song made

By the limber form and the slender beak

Of him that piped in the leafy shade.

They reach their camp: the shama's sketched,

And skinned and brained- “Where's the goodly bird?”

 Asks the searching guide-" Why need you it? "

"He's good to eat, 1've heard it said."

And thus, the destiny was wrought

Of him who sang with so much glee,

 And filled the woodland with his notes,

So tunefully, so tunefully.

And all that day the shamas sang:

"Who's there? Who's there?" they asked so free:

“It's I am here,” the hunter thought-

"The shama's slayer, need you me?"

                                                - R. L. Spittel

7. Bear

If you come across someone with a scarred and disfigured face in a village then undoubtedly you have bumped into a person who has saved his life from the vicious attack of a bear. When surprised in the jungle by man, a bear stands on its hind legs and literally falls down on him with the claws of its forelegs flared open. This stroke scrapes the man from face downwards. It will also normally bite the person’s head. Even if one is lucky to survive such an assault, the chances are that the battle scars will disfigure one’s face for the rest of the life.

Bear is an omnivore which generally feeds on fruit such as Weera, Palu, Mora, and on insects such as termites. It is naturally capable of climbing trees and can be quite smart in retrieving bee hives too. Though the soft parts of the carcass or the carrion of a wild animal are also consumed by the bear, they generally do not kill for food. Scats of bear can be distinguished from those of other animals in the jungle by the mass of tiny parts of ants and termites that they contain. A bear can readily break into and take apart a termite mound during the rainy season. It takes out the hive of termites and does not leave until the last termite and all the grub are sucked out and eaten.  

Once, at the National Zoo I witnessed a bear’s greedy way of eating termites. Then, the Wildlife Department head office was housed in a building within the Zoo premises and whenever we went there on duty, we used to spend our spare time wandering about the zoo.  Once, we saw two pieces of termite hive being taken to be offered to two bears caged close to each other.

On noticing this one bear became rather anxious and started to wriggle. As soon as the piece of hive was thrown into the cage it jumped at it and started to suck the termites hastily, holding the hive on the ground with one hand and pressing the lips on it. The soft and flexible lips of a bear can be rolled into a pipe to suck termites and grub within seconds.

But, the reaction of the bear in the other cage was totally different. It was startled on seeing the hive and started to look at it with great suspicion while trying to hide in a corner of the cage. The bear relaxed a little a few minutes later once it realised that the object thrown into the cage was motionless, and slowly reached it and examined it. It tapped the piece of hive in quick movements of the hand keeping its distance. Even after sometime the bear did not recover from its anxiety and figure-out what it should do. The totally opposite reactions of the two bears were a puzzle to me. The riddle was solved upon the curator Mr. Molligoda explaining that the first bear was one captured from the wild while the second one was captive born. The former had learned from adults how a termite mound is to be broken and had experienced the way how a hive is to be sucked of termites. It exactly knew what to do once the hive was offered. But the second bear born and grown in a cage did not know the taste of the termites. Until I left the scene this ‘urban’ bear did not accepted the termites offered as food in this form.

Certain animal species identify the food available in the environment and learn the way it is to be gathered by its association with adults of its kind. If such an animal looses that opportunity it finds it difficult to do so with its own instincts.

All animals in the wild follow the rule of eternal vigilance against danger. Generally, on sensing even a trivial change in the surrounding environment, animals retreat hastily and take evasive action. In most animals and depending on the species, acute sense of vision, smell or hearing, help them with this.

However, the bear is considered to have a weak sense of hearing and sighting. As a result, an approaching man may not be noticed until he is quite close. When startled at such close quarters the bear has no alternative escape strategy other than to pounce upon instantly.

Though I encountered bear in the jungle many times during my stay at Yala-East I was fortunate enough to get away without being attacked. Once, we narrowly escaped being mauled by a she bear at Bambaragasthalawa where there are several hillocks strewn with rock caves and boulders. She bears with cubs generally take shelter in such rock caves.

The road leading to Bambaragasthalawa ends at a hillock with a huge flat rock extending over a couple of hectares. A rock cave with an ancient reclining statue of Lord Buddha is found along a trail running on the left side of the hillock. The trail wends its way through huge trees unique to such rocky hills, with the trees resonating with the high pitched noise of the crickets. Nothing of the inside can be seen until one enters the elevated cave as the approach is from behind.

As Bambaragasthalawa was frequently invaded by poachers from Panama we used to patrol the area often. During one such patrol and after a search around the rock we were heading towards the cave with the experienced guard Raufdeen in front. Rauf climbed the hillock quickly and vanished into the cave with us filing slightly behind him. It was then we heard the frightened scream of Rauf. As the tone of his scream signalled danger we scrambled towards the mouth of the cave. Though we found Rauf to be safe he managed to put his words together only after a long struggle. ‘wala…. petiya ekka….  mawa dekala… diwwa…’ Rauf explained, panting[1].

Rauf had seen the she bear with a cub only after he entered the cave. His sudden appearance excited the bear and made her turn here and there and he started shouting subconsciously.  Getting startled by the scream of the uninvited visitor the bear had hurried out from the other end of the cave with its cub on the back, as we entered the cave. Foot prints of the bear and the cub were observed clearly on the layer of dust in the cave.

Newly born bear cubs start to move about in the jungle with the mother after a few weeks. When they are tired of running about or excited at the sign of danger, the cubs mount on mother’s back and hold on to her long hair. Then the mother carries the cubs to a shelter.  Bears live solitary except mothers who live in the company of their one or two cubs. During the breeding season there may be a few males in heat running behind a female and quarrelling with each other. On such occasions they are rather aggressive.

Lahugala National Park was then the smallest of its kind and one of the most attractive wildlife reserves in the island. It protects a significant part of the strip of jungle in between Yala East and Gal Oya National Park that skirts the Senanayake Samudra reservoir and protects its catchment. Such connecting streaks of jungle are needed for the seasonal movement of elephants. The Lahugala Mahawewa reservoir within the park has a floating mat of lush ‘Beru’ grass preferred by elephants with the jungle surrounding it on most sides. One has to be unlucky not to see at least fifteen elephants there on a cool and calm evening.

I had the opportunity of gaining diverse experience in the jungle during the first year of my career itself as we were directed to go on several expeditions within this training period. Such expeditions were mostly multiple day treks. With the help of seasoned officers I was able to quickly learn how to identify the different signs left behind by wild animals, their behaviour patterns and various other traits that helps one to survive in the jungle. Though some these expeditions were gruellingly long during which we were irritated by mosquitoes and ticks, the pleasure we derived being exposed to an open air life went beyond all these inconveniences. They helped to develop and stretch one’s endurance and self confidence.

On our expedition to Bakmitiyawa, August 1981. Back row - Mr. Jayaweera, Raufdeen, two villegers and Somapala Front - Arjuna, myself and Piyasiri

One warm afternoon in August 1981 we set out for an expedition from Lahugala, headed by the Park Warden Mr. I. D. Jayaweera. My fellow trainee officers Arjuna and Ajith along with some other experienced officers were part of the group. Our objective was to reach Bakmitiyawa a village in the middle of almost nowhere, by going across Lahugala National Park. The distance up to Bakmitiyawa that we had to walk was not less than thirty five kilometres. We were to reach Badamassawa through Karanda Oya before dusk to spend the night there and reach Bakmitiyawa the following day. As it is customary during such long expeditions in the jungle, each leg of the journey commences after hanging a broken twig on a large tree, with a prayer to a particular deity. Senior officers would avoid mentioning their plans and expected timings except vaguely. As it is believed that everything in the jungle happens at the deity’s will, whenever we asked anything about timings the only answer given was ‘we will see with deity’s blessing….’.

We had to carry the dry rations needed along with the utensils with us as the long walk up to Bakmitiyawa and the return journey was to take a couple of days. We were happy to be left with the light weight aluminium pots and pans as the heavy dry rations such as rice and coconut were taken by the experienced officers. But it was later that we realised the trick in it - the pack of dry rations becomes lighter as the journey progresses whereas our load remains the same.

Lahugala jungle is different to that of Yala East. Instead of mainly open grassland and short scrub, it consisted primarily of a forest of tall trees. Entering the jungle, the delight one gets cannot just be described by words. The tree crowns hugging each other without letting much sunlight in creates darkness even during midday. The squeaking of crickets in every direction casts a mysterious spell in one’s mind. Though the tall under brush is not that dense the visibility is not that good due to the darkness. The small water holes here and there contains only a few inches of water contaminated with moss and made murky by buffaloes.  We walked along trails running from one water hole to another and reached Karanda Oya after an hour.  

Though Karanda Oya was a fairly wide stream it was almost parched except for a few puddles here and there on the streambed. When the drought spell starts to progress the puddles remaining on the exposed sand of the drying riverbed bears water only for a short period. As the drought reaches the peak wild animals will have to dig the sand to find water to quench their thirst. The skill and the muscle to do so are possessed only by a few species of wild animals such as elephant and bear. As the elephants leave after drinking from the puddles they make by digging the sand with their forefeet, the wild pigs and the buffaloes arrive. In turn, as they leave the puddles after drinking as much as possible while lying off and on, urinating and dropping dung in the water, then comes the helpless creatures such as spotted deer and barking deer. The leopard lurks near such waterholes for the perfect ambush of these weary creatures that nevertheless reach the puddles watchful eyes. This is how everything happens in the jungle – all an interlinked chain.

Exhausted after the continuous walk, we dropped the haversacks and lay on the dry sand for a while. Though a walk in a tall forest such as Lahugala where there is cool shade is not too draining we kept on having to catch up with Mr Jayaweera who was lean and tall and was one of the fastest ramblers I have seen. It would be rare to find someone who can match up to him.

As we looked around while lying under the shade of the leaning branches of the huge Kumbuk trees that stand lining the banks of Karanda Oya, we could see hundreds of butterflies clustered together on the wet sand on the edges of the puddles. It is a feast for the eye to see these butterflies suddenly appear in thousands and move about during a certain season of the year. A yellowish variety of butterflies called ‘lemon immigrant’ is quite common in the jungle. Though they are generally nectar suckers they do not hesitate to feed on moisture from muddy puddles and even from fresh animal droppings.

Though the siesta on the soft sand under the cool shade of the Kumbuk trees was so soothing we had to reach the destination Badamassawa before dark. We again found ourselves running behind Mr. Jayaweera and the other officers - Game Guards Raufdeen, Piyasiri, and Somapala.

Number of water holes on either side of the trail were seen and checked on our way up to Badamassawa. Hides constructed by poachers were found near almost all these water holes. Hunting is quite productive during the drought as proven by the appearance of these hides. Wild animals concentrate around the water holes due to the scarcity of water in the jungle and become an easy target for the poachers taking cover in these hides. The scent of the poacher disguised by the hide is not easily detected by the animals as the hide is always constructed on a tree or on higher ground overlooking the waterhole. It is very rarely that a poacher who uses a hide fails to bring down a wild animal. Such poaching cannot be curbed easily as they take place far away from protected areas or in areas away from the reach of routine patrols.

We reached Badamassawa near sunset and settled on a clean and dry sand bed of a stream. Selection of a place in a jungle to spend a night depends on several factors. Firstly, it should not be on a jungle trail frequently used by animals. A smooth sandy place free from insects and near where there is clean water is perfect.

There are a number of preparations such as cleaning the ground, cooking and collection of fire wood to keep the campfire burning till morning etc. that needs to be completed before darkness falls.  Leaving the seniority aside everybody takes part in the chores as a team.  

While we were immersed in the work suddenly all stood to attention and an eerie silence fell on hearing a distant but rather unusual noise. The sound of the trampling of the dry leaves could be heard and as we watched in excitement what appeared through the trees was a huge bear.

With its head pointing downwards the bear glided towards us turning this way and that way and suddenly rolled on the ground at a distance of about twenty metres from the camp. As we were watching in astonishment the bear scratched its body by rolling on the ground for a long time and at once headed to the forest without noticing our presence at all. Undoubtedly the bear must have been distressed after being stung by a swarm of bees while trying its hand at extracting a bee hive. Preoccupied and with its weak senses it did not notice our presence at all. This episode drove home in us the reason why in most cases bear with it’s rather weak sight and hearing can get quite close unknowingly and then pounce upon you when suddenly surprised at close quarters.

After an early dinner we prepared to spend the night. A bedspread on the smooth sand close to the campfire and the bag of cloths to keep the head makes a comfortable bed to sleep on. The current of warm air rising from the crackling campfire drags the flames up into the air. It is comforting to be warmed by the campfire as the cool of the midnight creeps in.

Then the story time comes. Daring stories with some added spin and yarns continue till midnight. Meanwhile the campfire is rekindled and a cup of tea is sipped from time to time. As the last pages of the memory book are turned and silence takes over, the group falls asleep one by one.

I was listening to the ‘tut..tut..tu...tut.. .’ call of a nightjar raised from a distance as my eyelids were closing under their weight.  It was at this moment a whole new group of visitors were coming to see us. All those asleep rose to their feet in a flicker as if a set of springs were released at once, upon hearing a deep throated howling raised just across from the camp. We came to our senses, loading one of the guns we had for our protection and quickly pulling out a few branches from the campfire as weapons of defence. Then came a mixture of frightening sounds - roaring, barking, hooting and hissing.

Four or five bears were coming up along the dry stream towards the camp site busily quarrelling with each other. Though the faint light cast by the camp fire did not allow us to clearly watch the drama being performed before us, the continuous barking of the bears was blood curdling. Undoubtedly, it must have been a group of males pursuing a female. The next moment we all started shouting as loud as we could in unison, moments before the bears were about to literally bump into us. With a sigh of relief we realised from the tone of their voices that we had alerted them enough to thwart their advance and had indeed turned them back.

Wild animal trailing females in heat are generally aggressive. A bear with its steel hook like claws and long sharp teeth in its big mouth is indeed a ferocious animal especially during the mating season.

The following morning we got up early to cook and have our breakfast and then set off on the second lap of the journey to Bakmitiyawa. It was dense jungle, through which we walked up to ‘Palutawa’ rock cave and beyond up to ‘Pinkamgathpitiya’ an abandoned chena, and finally reached Bakmitiyawa.

Bakmitiyawa did not differ from Kumana very much other than being a little bigger. Though the village had the basic facilities such as a sub-post office and a small school, living conditions of the villagers were almost the same as those of Kumana. We spent our second night in a hut near a tank called Morana, close to Bakmitiyawa. The following morning we set off and returned to Lahugala along the cart track via Karanda Oya and Hulannuge.

A few years after we visited Bakmitiyawa we heard that the village were facing harassment at the hand of terrorists  as one of the main terrorist jungle camps Kanjikudichchi Aru was located not far from the village.

Once during the period of drought I was seated on a rock overlooking Divulpallama tank with a couple of university students and late Mr. P.B. Karunaratne, one of the eminent wildlife researchers who was leading a study. While watching the animals coming to drink in the tank suddenly we heard the rustling noise of someone stepping on the layer of dry leaves behind the rock. The rustle slowly got louder and we sensed that whoever making the noise was moving along the trail towards the base of the rock. The noise stopped there and then moved in the direction of the water. As we peeped over the rock, what we saw was a huge bear starting to drink. The bear finished drinking in a couple of minutes and returned along the same trail without sensing our presence. If the bear with its sniffing and swinging head happened to take the trail up the rock instead of diverting at the foot, the story being related here might have been quite different.

 

Apart from what is related here, during my stay at Yala East I had the opportunity to observe bear number of times when patrolling by vehicle at night.  When they suddenly notice a vehicle coming towards them they always get surprised and start running along the road. Sometimes they run and climb on to a tree. Once I observed a bear cub quickly climbing on to its mother’s back and riding away with her.

Though bears are fierce animals and can be dangerous at close quarters observing them from a distance is fascinating.

“I think that I shall never see

A poem lovely as a tree

A tree that looks at God all day

And lifts her leafy arms to pray

A tree whose hungry mouth is pressed

Against the earth’s wide flowing breast

And on whose branches snow has lain

Who intimately lives with rain

A tree that may in summer wear

A nest of Robins in her hair

Poems are made by fools like me

But only God can make a tree.”

- Joyce Kilmer

  

---

[1] “Bear…. with a cub…… ran upon seeing me….”

6. Leopard

While trees and lianas bloom and adorn the jungle, wild animals make it vibrant. An elephant leisurely feeds on a branch broken from a tree, a wild buffalo raises its head and looks around proudly, a deer plays on a mat of green grass and a yawning indolent leopard lies on a rock, all bringing verve to the jungle.

Yala East was a fine habitat for leopards. There was no scarcity of animals of prey due to the dense population of deer. The thickets here and there and the rock caves provided ample shelter to the leopards. On the way back from Kumana in the evenings, park visitors came across leopard very often.

The social behaviour pattern of sharing the habitat with others of their kind in harmony cannot be seen among leopards, as in elephants. A male leopard always keeps the boundary of its territory well demarcated and does not allow other males to trespass. Warning signs such as the chemical scent of scats and urine and claw marks on trees are used for such demarcation.

According to studies conducted in Kenya, the extent of a male leopard home range is around 33 square kilometres and that of a female is around 14 square kilometres. Size of the territory of a leopard is generally determined by the availability and distribution of the resources needed to meet the basic requirements such as; prey animals, water, shelter and of course mates. Studies such as that done in Kenya that required leopards to be captured and released with radio collars have not been carried out in Sri Lanka so far. But, judging by the status of the jungles here the size of the territory of leopards should be smaller. Another reason for the smaller range is the absence of competing predators such as lions, cheetahs or hyenas as in the African jungles. The territory of a male always overlaps that of several females but not that of other males.

As one proceeds towards Kumana from Okanda, one passes a rocky hillock near Andarakala. One flat rock slate near the top of the hillock surrounded by several other rocks was once exclusively claimed by a sluggish leopard as its resting place. The leopard used to spend the evenings lying on the rock and watching around with its sleepy eyes as the heat of the mid-day sun faded away. If a vehicle with a group of visitors comes along the road and stops there the leopard gets up and enters the jungle hesitantly and returns no sooner the vehicle has left. One day, an officer passing Andarakala observed the leopard lying dead with severe wounds. It was quite clear that the wounds were as a result of a violent fight with another leopard. The leopard had to concede to an intruder that was stronger. A male leopard may fight another intruding male to death. In such a case the territory of the demised leopard will be divided and taken over by the neighbouring males. Nature’s ‘survival of the fittest’ law applies strictly here.

Any animal from a small rat up to a young sambhur deer may fall prey to a leopard. Only an adult sambhur deer with fully grown antlers, a well built wild buffalo or a wild pig with sharp tushes can pose a threat to a leopard. One documentary had a scene which shows a leopard being charged and chased by a group of adult wild pigs while trying to hunt an adolescent in the group. Filmed in Wilpattu National Park it shows the nerve and the tenacity of the wild pigs. The scene ends with the helpless leopard walking away with its tail bent and broken after being attacked.

Apprehending a prey animal is not an easy task for a leopard. They succeed only once in about ten attempts. A leopard will have to employ every tactic and skill to reach a prey to within arms length. Here, the flexibility and the coiled strength of the body and, extreme patience help the leopard to overcome the ‘escape tactics’ of its prey. The colour pattern of the fur on leopard skin is similar to that of shadows falling on the ground created by sunrays filtering through the tree canopy. This combined with its fine patience helps the leopard to stealthily reach its prey.  

Even the boundless patience at most times is unable to stop the attention of the thousand eyes peering through the jungle. Sight of a leopard which walks sneakily through the bush is first caught by the monkeys, languirs or the macaques, which perpetually survey the landscape from their vantage points on trees. Though the leopard tries patiently to avoid the attention of its prey the monkeys catch its slightest movement. Once a leopard is detected the monkeys start the coughing call that serves as an alarm call to other animals. When this happens the leopard has to give up the idea of preying within the radius the call reaches.  Coughing call of the monkey and the alarming hoot of the spotted deer would fade away only long after the leopard has disappeared back into the bush.

Sometimes the commotion of a troop of monkeys can indeed be rewarding to the leopard. Though the monkeys are so agile in leaping about the tree canopy, they might miss their step when jumping from one branch to another while having their eyes fixed on the leopard. No sooner a monkey falls on the ground thus, the leopard would spring into action and close it jaws around it, letting it hang from the mouth. Monkeys are considered to be a preferred and common prey of the leopard as evidenced by scats containing monkey hair.

Generally a leopard goes after prey in the late evenings and in the early mornings, avoiding the hot mid-day. But, reaching a herd of spotted deer flocked in a grassland is not that easy. The grazing deer raise their head ever so often and make sure that there is no danger lurking around. Soon as the figure of a leopard appears over a bush of tall grass, a knoll or a tree trunk laying on the ground, the whole herd of deer bursts into the alarm call that resembles a high pitched short hoot. It is raised for the protection of all animals in the jungle.  They fix their eye on the leopard and keep on calling until the leopard disappears, stamping the hooves of the forefeet on the ground. The jungle aroused by a slight slip-up of a leopard takes a long time to return back to tranquillity.

A leopard stalking a prey shows great patience. The crawling leopard keeps the eye fixed on the prey and makes use of every possible cover to conceal itself. Reaching the prey to within a distance of a few leaps the leopard comes out of the cover and makes a dash to the victim.  

Whether or not the victim animal saves its life from the sharp claws of the pounding leopard totally depends on how fast its evasive action is. To bring down a prey animal which literally takes off changing the direction instantly, the leopard has to be strong as well as agile. Nature has no mercy on those who are not so built.

If the leopard manages to bring down the prey having hooked it with claws of the forefeet, next step would be to choke the animal’s throat with its powerful jaws. Suffocation or breaking the spine with a sudden jerk brings instantaneous death to the victim.

A large prey brought down by a leopard will suffice for a few days for it to feed on. A female with cubs will share the prey with them. Sometimes the prey may have to be taken to a tree and hung on a fork of a branch to keep it away from the other carnivores. The amazing strength of a leopard enables it to ascend a tree carrying even a well grown deer in its mouth. Among the members of the cat family, only the leopard has the habit of taking prey onto trees.

Leopards which have physical disabilities have to choose easy prey. Such leopards tend to come near human settlements and prey on domestic animals such as dogs and cattle. In India it is not uncommon for such leopards as well as tigers to prey on humans. Jim Corbett was one of the famous hunters who pursued and killed such man-eaters. He has aptly related his experiences in his writings. The man-eating leopard of Rudraprayag killed and ate 125 human within a period of eight years from 1918 to 1926. After being destroyed it was confirmed that the leopard had suffered from various physical disabilities. Whereas in Sri Lanka, except for the man-eating leopard of Punani in the Eastern Province, there is hardly any written record of man-eaters. As stated in an article in a late 1930’s edition of ‘Loris’ magazine,  R. Shelton Agar, the experienced hunter of elephants and leopards who destroyed it says that it had killed 12 men over a period while lurking near a public road. Agar ambushed and destroyed the leopard over its last kill, the railway tappal runner from Punani to Kalkuda.

One early morning in June 1982, a woman in Ullewela area of Panama village entered her kitchen to find a leopard sitting there. As the woman became restless and utterly nervous the leopard left the house and got to the sand road in front through the fence of the compound. Being a fairly dense village, Panama consisted of a large number of small compounds and a network of sandy roads stretching through. By then, the sun had arisen and not knowing where to escape to in the unfamiliar environment, the leopard walked along the roads. Agitated neighbours and screaming women compounded the situation. A wild animal that enters a human habitation for some reason becomes quite confused and disturbed due to the unknown environment and the excited villagers. Such an animal has no alternative but to be aggressive out of its sense of insecurity. The leopard loitered along the narrow roads in the village and attacked three men who crossed its path, severely harming them and bringing turmoil to the whole village.

The leopard moved about the village which had then assumed the looks of a battlefield and finally entered the house belonging Thambayya Kiribanda. Though the leopard entered the house to escape from the commotion in the village, within moments the house was surrounded by tens of villagers, encircling the house and imprisoning the animal.

The Grama Niladhari of Panama, Rasnak Gedara Ranbanda was informed of the incident. He arrived with two of the best poachers in the village, Premaratna and Wickramaratna. The house was a wattle and daub dwelling with a cajdan roof, located inside a small fenced compound. The onlookers increased rapidly and waited anxiously outside the fence to see the drama they expected to unfold.

A long time passed without an incident.  Perumal, the bicycle repairer of the village whose patience was running out slowly entered the compound climbing over the gate. The two marksmen too were on alert taking aim at the front door which was open. The house had an open veranda in front at the left of which was the small window of a room inside. As it was not safe to reach the open front door Perumal slowly got to the window and then tried to peep into the house through its wooden bars.  But the darkness inside did not allow him to see anything. Then, with heightened curiosity, courageous Perumal pressed his face even further against the bars of the window with the palms of his hands covering his face in defence.

What was then witnessed the next moment was the leopard breaking the bars and leaping out the window, bringing Perumal down in the process. With screaming Perumal in the grips of the leopard that was trying to bite his head the crowds began to howl. Next, finding no space among the crowd to escape, it turned back and ran towards the front door to get back into the house. But before it reached the door, Premaratna and Wickramaratna took precise aim and felled it instantly. This ended what was a long leopard dance.

Killing of the leopard was reported to the park office at Okanda by the Grama Niladhari and we arrived at the scene in the afternoon, for the investigation. Fatal gunshot injuries were observed on the back, base of the tail and across the belly. The leopard was a male and the length from the nose to the tip of the tail tip was 6 feet 10 inches. Shoulder height at the fore limbs was 2 feet 7 inches. The leopard had a scar of an old wound on the palm of the right fore limb, while no other infirmity was observed on any other organ or teeth.

By then, the four wounded people including Perumal were being treated at the Pottuvil hospital for the bruises and wounds on head, shoulders and the sides. As it was clear that the leopard was killed in public defence it was decided not to take any further legal action against those who were involved in its slaying. The carcass was brought to Okanda and the leopard was skinned for the skin to be sent to the head office in Colombo and the rest was buried.

Having a wound on a fore limb the leopard must have been roaming around the village at night looking for easy prey like dogs. On this particular day the sun dawned while the leopard still was moving about in the village and it must have entered the kitchen looking for a shelter being unable to find the way back. Wild animals that enter human habitations often undergo a regrettable fate as that befell this leopard.

One of the special characters seen among mammals is the intensive parental care given to the offspring. Leopard cubs too develop all the skills needed for adulthood under the protection and guidance of the mother. This training starts with playing with the tail of the mother and gradually extends up to killing of prey.  An animal that did not receive such coaching would not be able to fend for itself if released into the jungle.

When the animals breed beyond the capacity of the Colombo National Zoological Gardens, at times, excess animals are released into the National Parks with the permission from the Department of Wildlife Conservation. These animals born and grown in the cages at the zoo do not have experience of the conditions that prevail in the natural forest. Once, it was decided to release a couple of leopards so born into Yala National Park. As the two animals had to be trained to prey on live animals they were provided with live prey while still in their cages.

Block II of Yala National Park was selected as the location for the release. It extends between Menik and Kumbukkan Oya rivers and is free of visitors. One evening the two leopards were brought to the designated release area in a large cage and the doors were opened to release them. It was thought that they will come out looking for freedom as soon as the doors opened but what happened was the opposite. The leopards edged more and more to the inner corner of the cage and tried to conceal themselves while staring at the open expanse. They were forced out of the cage with great difficulty only after darkness fell. The officers who witnessed the release reported that the leopards lied down on the ground once they came out of the cage and twisted as the grass and twigs touched their belly. As there was no proper arrangement to monitor the post-release conditions it was impossible to determine exactly what fate had in store for them after their newly gifted freedom.

 “They say the Leopard and the Langur keep

The courts where Gemunu gloried and drank deep:

And Gothaimbara, that great Warrior - the Wild Buffalo

Stamps over his head, and he lies fast a sleep." 

                                                                                                   – Douglas Raffel